 |
|
 |
Biological Characteristics
Species
|
The
common murre (Uria aalga),
also called the common guillemot, averages 40 cm (16-17 in) in length
and weighs between 980 and 1000 g (Johnsgard, 1987). In its breeding
plumage the upperparts, including head and neck, are rich dark brown,
underparts are white. The rear edge of the wing is white, inside of
mouth yellow, and the feet dark. The winter plumage is similar to that
of summer but the throat and cheeks are white instead of dark brown. The
common murre can be distinguished from all other alcids by the long,
dark slender bill (40 –50 mm), longer than that of any other alcid (Terres,
1980). Male and female common murres are of similar sizes and plumages.
The juvenile is similar to winter-plummage adult but with a shorter,
more slender bill (Gaston and Jones, 1998).
A “bridled” color phase exists in some birds where a narrow
white eye ring and postocular stripe are present (Johnsgard, 1987).
Three subspecies of the common murre have been identified (Johnsgard,
1987). |
|
Nesting
and Status in Estuarine and Coastal Areas |
Common
murres are highly colonial, nesting on bare rock ledges using no
material for the nest except occasionally a few pebbles cemented
together with excrement, which may keep the egg from rolling (Terres,
1980). Clutch is a single, pear shaped egg. The egg is white to
brown with markings of faint scribbles or deep blotches of red, brown or
black (Freethy, 1987). Chicks are semiprecocial being fed at the site
for an average of 22-25 days (Gaston and Jones, 1998). |
Abundance and Range
|
Recent
estimates suggest an Atlantic population of 6 to 9 million breeding
birds and a Pacific population of 6.3 million breeding birds (Gaston and
Jones, 1998). The Atlantic breeding range includes E. Canada from the
Bay of Fundy and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Central Labrador,
E. New Foundland, Iceland, Bear Island, the British Isles, and
Norway. In the Pacific the breeding range is throughout the Gulf of
Alaska, the Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and also in California, Oregon,
and Washington, but only a few thousand breed in British Columbia and SE
Alaska (Gaston and Jones, 1998). This species winters offshore
throughout its breeding range, extending further south to Maine,
Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey in the Atlantic and south to
Newport Beach, California in the Pacific (Johnsgard, 1987). |
Site Fidelity
|
Breeders
normally return to the same site each year and hence pair-bonds persist,
sometimes for many years (Gaston and Jones, 1998). |
Ease of Census
|
Simple
|
|
Feeding Habits |
Stomach
contents of this species reveals a variety in the diet which includes
52% fish, 36% crustacean
and annelid, 10% marine mollusk, and 2% seaweed. Common murres can feed
alone but seem to prefer to hunt together in loose flocks (Freethy,
1987). They locate prey visually by dipping head into water and then
pursue by diving and “flying” submerged.
Occasionally these birds will coordinate hunting; a line of birds
will swim around a shoal eventually encircling prey before moving in to
“draw the net” and then feed together.
Prey is usually swallowed prior to surfacing, thus eluding theft
by aggressive gulls (Freethy, 1987). Typically the murre will dive for
about 100 seconds, and has been reported to dive down to 100 meters
(Gaston and Jones, 1998). |
|
|
|
|
I. |
Organochlorine
Contaminants |
|
A.
|
Concentrations
in adults |
|
1.
|
Brain and muscle tissue samples from 10 dead adult common murres
and 6 healthy live common murres collected during a period of abnormal
mortality (min. est. of 51,100 dead common murres) near Newport, Oregon
in July and August 1969 were analyzed for organochlorine contamination
(Scott et al., 1975). These results were compared to samples taken
during the following year in the same area.
Analysis revealed an average DDE
concentration of 8.7 mg/g
ww in the brain tissue of dead birds, whereas the level in the healthy
birds was 1.1 mg/g.
The brain-to-muscle ratio of DDE
averaged 28 in the dead murres.
The January (n = 10), June (n = 18), and August (n = 10) 1970
samples indicated an average DDE concentration
of 0.44 mg/g
in brain tissue with brain-to-muscle ratios not exceeding 0.97. Brain
levels of PCBs averaged 4.0
mg/g
in the dead murres, 3.7 mg/g
in the concurrent healthy murres, and 1.1 mg/g
in the June 1970 sample.
|
|
2.
|
Egg
(E), egg fat (EF/10), and whole body (W) tissue from common murres
collected in 1968 from Pacific and Atlantic locations that were near or
far from agricultural / industrial coasts were analyzed for DDE
and DDE/PCB
with the following results (mg/g
ww): Pacific-near: DDE
= 14.6 (EF/10) and 6.8 (W), DDE/PCB
= 3 (EF/10); Pacific-far = no results recorded; Atlantic-near = no
results recorded; Atlantic-far: DDE =
0.77 (E), DDE/PCB
= no results recorded (Keith and Gruchy, 1970). |
|
3.
|
Whole birds and livers from common murres (n=8) picked up dead on
beaches on the eastern side of the Irish Sea region in October to
November 1969 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants and PCBs
and were compared with whole birds and livers of common
murres (n = 9) shot at sea on 29 and 30 November 1969 in the
northwestern part of the Irish Sea region (Parslow and Jeffries, 1973).
Average concentrations (mg/g
ww) in the whole bird without liver were: Shot Birds: PCB
= 3.0, DDE =
1.2, dieldrin = 0.35; Birds Found Dead: PCB
= 3.5, DDE = 1.0, dieldrin =
0.11. Average
concentrations in livers were: Shot Birds: PCB
= 0.53, DDE = 0.18, dieldrin
= 0.09; Birds Found Dead: PCB
= 50, DDE = 9.7, dieldrin
= 0.48. At the average body load of each material, the proportionate
increase in liver load in the birds found dead was approximately 25, 24,
and 11 times greater for PCB,
DDE, and dieldrin, respectively than in the shot birds. |
|
4.
|
Livers
from common murres found in a large die-off in the autumn of 1969 in the
Irish Sea region were analyzed for PCB
contamination (Parslow and Jeffries, 1973).
The mean concentration for 39 birds was 127.1 mg/g
ww. The mean concentration of calculated individual liver loads was 5549
mg,
which is nearly twice the load found in 9 healthy birds shot in the same
region (1962 mg).
A correlation was established between liver and whole body residues of
organochlorine residues. |
|
5. |
During the course of a number of studies from 1969 to 1972 on the
effects of toxic substances on birds the Toxic Chemicals Section of the
Canadian Wildlife Service accumulated a large number of birds and eggs
for analysis of organochlorine residues (Gilbertson and Reynolds, 1982).
Of these samples, common murres were collected with the following mean
concentrations (mg/g
dry weight): Liver (n=2) DDE
= 1.89, PCB = 3.69; Whole
body (n=1) DDE = 3.25, PCB
= 2.80; Breast muscle (n=2) DDE
= 1.09, PCB = 1.07. The
liver and whole body samples were from birds found in British Columbia,
while the breast muscle sample was from birds found in New Foundland. |
|
6.
|
Livers
and muscle tissue from common murres collected around Britain in summer
1971 and fall 1970 were analyzed for PCBs
(Bourne and Bogan, 1972). The
following concentrations (in mg/g)
were found: LIVER: 0.6, 1.1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.6, 0.9, 7.6, 0.5, 0.8, 0.5,
0.04, ND, 0.1, 6.0, 0.6, and 0.2; MUSCLE:
0.4, 0.7, 0.4, 0.7, 0.4, 0.5, 4.6, 0.2, 0.8, 0.3, 0.03, 0.1, 0.1, 1.2,
0.3, and 0.2. |
|
7.
|
Pooled
fat extracts and droppings from common murres collected from the cliffs
of the island of Stora Karlso in the Baltic Sea during breeding season
were analysed for the presence of phenolic
PCB metabolites (Jansson et al., 1975). The faeces sample
revealed the following numbers of isomers after methylation: methoxytetrachlorobiphenyl (M4OH) = 6, M5OH
= 8, M6OH = 7, M7OH =
3, dimethoxypentachlorobiphenyl
(M5(OH)2 = 1, M6(OH)
2 = 2. The composition of the PCB residues in pooled
tissue samples and droppings were very similar. DBP
(4,4’-dichlorobenzophenone) and DDA
(2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)acetic acid) were indicated in some
samples. |
|
8.
|
Liver
and muscle tissue from beached, dead common murres collected in the
North Irish Sea and East Scotland during January to February 1974 were
analyzed for oiling and organochlorine content (Lloyd et al., 1974).
The mean concentration (mg/g
ww) ranges found were as follows: Non-oiled murre liver (n = 7): PCBs
= 6 to 143, DDE = 0.5 to
22.3, dieldrin = 0.07 to
0.6; Non-oiled murre muscle (n = 7): PCBs
= 1 – 23, DDE = 0.2 to
1.7, dieldrin = 0.02 to
0.6; Oiled murre liver: PCBs
= 41 – 126, DDE = 6.6 to
13.9, dieldrin = Not
Detected to 1.3; Oiled murre muscle: No data. |
|
9.
|
Adipose
tissue samples taken from male and female common murres collected from
the Isle of May and the Greater Saltees during 1978 – 1980 were
analyzed for individual PCB
congeners and DDE
(Borlakoglu et al., 1990). The average concentration (mg/g
ww) of total PCBs in both
sexes obtained during 1978 (250, n=9) was somewhat lower than that for
1979 (450, n=6). PCB congeners
67, 118, 138, 153, 168, 170, 180, 183, and 194 accounted for nearly half
of the total burden of PCBs in both sexes. The following concentrations
of the indicated PCB congeners
were found in adipose tissue from males: 67:
44.6, 118: 87.8, 138:
124, 153: 94.6, 168:
59.3, 180: 45.2, and 194:
76.4. The following concentrations of the indicated PCB
congeners were found in adipose tissue from females: 67:
2.48, 118: 4.70, 138:
8.90, 153: 7.01, 168:
5.76, 180: 3.88, 194:
6.60. Levels of total PCBs
correlated positively with the levels of DDE.
Listed in this journal article are 45 different isomers and congeners of
PCB quantified from adipose
samples. |
|
10.
|
Livers
from 17 common murre carcasses and fat, muscle, kidney, and brain
tissues extracted from 4 other common murres collected between 1988 and
1990 in UK and preserved in the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology at
Monks Wood were analyzed for PCB
congener patterns (Boumphrey, 1993). The following SPCB
concentrations in mg/g
ww were found in 2 individual birds (A and B): Liver: A = 17.6, B =
11.5; Muscle: A = 0.9, B = 1.1; Kidney: A = 5.9, B = 2.6; Brain: A
(only) = 3.2; Fat: B (only) = 450; gizzard and contents: B (only) = 137.
PCB signatures
revealed that the relative contribution of each congener to SPCB
was the same in all organs, even though the total PCB
(or SPCB)
concentrations showed great variation between tissues. PCB signatures
varied greatly between species. The common murre had highest values of congeners
153, 138, 187 and 180 (All > 10% contribution to SPCB).
|
|
11.
|
Livers
from 14 sick or dead common murres (2 were oiled and 6 were suspected of
exposure to oil) collected around November 1988 on the beaches of
Cornish, UK were analyzed for PCB
congeners and hydrocarbons (Quick, 1993). The concentration ranges of
hydrocarbons found (mg/g)
were as follows: Hexadecane
= trace to .52, Heptadecane =
trace to .72, Pristane
= trace to 7.8, Octadecane = trace
to 1.1, Phytane = trace.
PCB congener concentrations
in mg/g
were in the following ranges: 118:
0.24 to 0.27, 138:
0.30 to 0.50, 153:
0.24 to 0.61. |
|
12.
|
Liver,
kidney, and pectoral muscle samples were taken during six successive
winters (1989-90 to 1994-95) from 508 common murres found stranded and
either dead or sick (dying later in a rehab center) along the Belgian
shore (Debacker et al., 1997). These samples were analyzed for SPCBs
(mg/g
dry weight) with the following results (beach dead / rehab center dead):
Liver: 5.7 / 11.7; Kidney: 3.4 / 2.6; Muscle: 2.1 / 5.4. |
|
13.
|
Livers,
muscles, and kidneys of beached common murres collected during winter
(Nov/Dec, Jan, and Feb) and spring (Mar) from 1990 to 1995 along the
Belgian coast were analyzed for organochlorine contamination (Joiris et
al., 1997). PCB
(S congeners)
mean concentrations in ug/g dry weight were: Liver-winter = 4.1, 4.2,
2.7; Liver-spring = 11.1; Muscle-winter = 1.6, 1.6, 1.5; Muscle-spring =
4.0; Kidney-winter = 0.6, 2.9, 2.6; Kidney-spring = 1.9. Of the organochlorine pesticides analysed, the following
were not detected in any sample: HCB,
o,p’-DDD, p,p’-DDD, p,p’-DDT,
endrin, trans-heptachlor,
epoxide, heptachlor, methoxychlor, mirex.
The concentration of others were low, below detection
limit in most of the samples: HCHs,
including lindane, dieldrin, aldrin, o,p’-DDE.
However, the p,p’-DDE
concentration was high in almost all samples: Liver-winter = 0.6, 0.8,
0.5; Liver-spring = 1.5; Muscle-winter = 0.2, 0.3, 0.3;
Muscle-spring = 0.4; Kidney-winter = 0.1, 0.4, 0.4; Kidney-spring = 0.3.
|
|
B.
|
Concentrations
in eggs |
|
1.
|
Eggs
(n = 4) from common murres collected in 1963 from St. Abbs Head,
Berwickshire, United Kingdom were analyzed for organochlorine
insecticide residue (Moore and Tatton, 1965). The following ranges in
concentrations (mg/g
wet weight) were found: DDE
= 1.5 to 4.0, dieldrin
= 0.1 to 2.0, total organochlorine residue = 2.2 to 6.8. |
|
2.
|
Eggs
(n = 3) from common murres collected at St. Abbs Head, Berwickshire,
United Kingdom in 1965 were analyzed for orgnaochlorine contaminants
(Robinson et al., 1967). The following mean concentrations (mg/g
wet weight) were found: dieldrin
= 0.11, DDE
= 1.30. |
|
3.
|
Eggs
from common murres collected in UK prior to 1965 were analyzed for total
organochlorine insecticide residue (Moore,
1965). The following concentrations (mg/g)
were found: 1.0 (n = 2), 2.0 (n = 6), 3.0 (n = 1), and 6.0 (n = 1). |
|
4.
|
Eggs
(n = 9) from common murres collected during May 1968 in the Baltic Sea
region near Sweden were analyzed for organochlorine contamination
(Jensen et al., 1969). The
following mean concentrations (mg/g
wet weight) were recorded: Egg FAT: SDDT
= 570, DDT
= 20, PCB
= 250; Egg fresh TISSUE: SDDT
= 40, DDT
= 1.2, PCB
= 16. In these eggs, as much as 87% of the SDDT
was DDE.
|
|
5.
|
Eggs
(n = 11) collected from Baltic region common murres in May, 1968 and
eggs collected in May, 1969 were analyzed for organochlorine
contaminants (Jensen et al., 1972).
These results were compared to analysis of Baltic common murre
adult pectoral muscle tissue and juvenile pectoral muscle tissue taken
in 1969. There was no significant difference in SDDT
and PCB
levels in eggs from 1968 and 1969. The same amount of chlorinated
hydrocarbons were found in fat from eggs and fat from pectoral muscle,
although the juveniles (3 week old) showed a decreased level. The mean
concentrations found (mg/g
wet weight) in extractable fat portions were: Egg 1968: SDDT
= 590, PCB =
250; Egg 1969: SDDT
= 590, PCB
= 200; Adult muscle: SDDT
= 610, PCB
= 160; Juvenile muscle: SDDT
= 97, PCB
= 48. The mean concentrations found (mg/g)
in fresh tissue portions were: Egg 1968: SDDT
= 40, PCB =
17; Egg 1969: SDDT
= 56, PCB
= 19; Adult muscle: SDDT
= 14, PCB
= 3.4; Juvenile muscle: SDDT
= 2.2, PCB
= 1.1. |
|
6. |
During the course of a number of studies from 1969 to 1972 on the
effects of toxic substances on birds the Toxic Chemicals Section of the
Canadian Wildlife Service accumulated a large number of eggs for
analysis of organochlorine residues (Gilbertson and Reynolds, 1982). Of
these samples common murre eggs (n=4) were collected from Quebec with
the following means (mg/g
dry weight): DDE = 6.34, PCB = 6.90. |
|
7.
|
Eggs
(n = 4) from common murres collected in 1971 at Ile St. Marie in Quebec,
Canada were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (Pearce, 1979).
Mean concentrations of contaminants in mg/g
ww were: DDE
= 2.03, PCBs
= 8.37, dieldrin
= 0.02. |
|
8.
|
Eggs
from common murres collected in Great Britain and Sweden between 1967
and 1970 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (n = 66) and PCBs
(n = 16) (Prestt and Ratcliffe,
1970). The following concentrations (mg/g
ww) were found: BHC isomers =
0.005, dieldrin
= 0.28, DDE
= 2.12, TDE
= 0.06, DDT =
0.04, DME (DDMU or 1 chloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)
ethylene)
= 0.01, total organochlorine residues = 2.51, PCBs
= 5.13. |
|
9.
|
Egg
samples (10 to 12 annually) from common murres collected annually in
late May or early June from 1971 to 1976 at Graesholmen Island, Denmark
were analyzed for organochlorine contaminant concentrations (Dyck and
Kraul, 1984). Egg samples
(n = 15) collected from the Faeroe Islands in 1972 were similarly
analyzed and used as a reference. DDE
and PCBs
are comparable in the Graesholmen eggs; the yearly means vary between
about 350 and 600 mg/g
ww for DDE
and 400 to 600 mg/g
for PCBs.
In contrast the Faeroese eggs show DDE
residues which are approximately 100 times lower (6.4 mg/g) and PCB
residues which
are about 50 times lower (11.9 mg/g).
Dieldrin concentrations (1.0 to 3.4 mg/g)
in the Graesholman eggs are about 200 times lower than DDE levels
in the same eggs. Linear regression analysis suggests a decrease in the DDE
content of the Graesholman eggs
during the 6 year period (42 mg/g
decrease per year) The annual means of dieldrin
do not suggest a trend. |
|
10.
|
Eggs
from common murres (n = 41) collected from 4 localities along coastal
Norway in May 1972 were analyzed for DDE
and PCBs
(Fimreite et al., 1977). PCB
levels were significantly correlated with those of DDE, and the
average PCB concentrations
consistently exceeded DDE by a
factor of 2.7. The
following levels (mg/g
ww) were recorded for the 4 different areas:
Hjelmsoy (n = 11): DDE
= 0.74, PCB
= 2.01; Hornoy (n = 10): DDE =
1.07, PCB
= 3.23; Rost (n = 10): DDE
= 0.89, PCB
= 2.08; and Runde (n = 10): DDE =
0.51, PCB =
1.45. |
|
11.
|
Eggs
from common murres taken at various locations along the coast of the UK
before 1974 were analyzed for DDE
and PCB
and compared geographically (Parslow and Jeffries, 1974).
The following mean concentrations (mg/g
ww) were reported: DDE:
North coast = 6.2, 6.5, 6.4, 7.0, East coast = 9.7, 9.8, South coast =
17.2, 16.9, 11.8, 23.6, Irish Sea coast = 22.2, 28.8, 23.3, 20.8,
Ireland Atlantic coast = 8.3; PCB:
North coast = 17, 15, 14, 15, East coast = 36, 56, South coast = 165,
76, 101, 61, 165, Irish Sea coast = 154, 216, 128, 162, Ireland Atlantic
coast = 39. |
|
12.
|
Eggs
(n = 10) from common murres collected from each of 5 colonies in
Scotland and Wales in 1980 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants
(including HEOD
from the insecticides aldrin and
dieldrin)
and compared to similar samples taken in 1969-1972 (Newton, 1981). The
following mean concentrations (mg/g
ww) were found in 1969-72 / 1980 samples: Skomer Island: DDE = 1.57 /
1.01, HEOD = 0.05 / 0.01, PCBs
= 8.5 / 2.35;
Scare Rocks: DDE = 1.71 /
1.23, HEOD = 0.08 / 0.002, PCBs
= 12.52 / 5.45;
St Kilda: DDE = 0.60 / 0.99, HEOD
= 0.003 / 0, PCBs
= 0.49 / 1.52; Fair Isle and Isle of
May concentrations were not listed. |
|
13.
|
Egg
samples (N = 10) from common murres collected from four regions in North
Norway in 1983 were analyzed for organochlorines (Barrett, 1985). The
recorded mean concentrations in mg/g
were as follows: E. Finnmark: PCB
= 0.64, DDE
= 0.94, HCB
= 0.17, b-HCH
= 13 ng/g; W. Finnmark: PCB
= 0.70, DDE
= 0.69, HCB
= 0.13, b-HCH
= 7 ng/g; g-HCH
=
2 ng/g; S. Troms: PCB
= 0.36, DDE
= 0.49, HCB
= 0.09, b-HCH
= 6 ng/g; g-HCH
=
1 ng/g; Lofoten: PCB = 0.79, DDE = 0.33, HCB
= 0.13, b-HCH
= 5 ng/g. There were no
consistent patterns of regional differences in the residue levels.
Results were also compared to similar analysis performed on
samples taken in 1972. There
was no significant change in the levels of DDE and PCB in the eggs of
common murres between 1972 and 1983.
|
|
14.
|
Egg
samples (n = 10) of common murres collected in 1992 and 1993 at
locations in North Norway were measured and analyzed for organochlorine concentrations
and compared to similar samples taken in a 1983 study (Barrett et al.,
1996). All data pairs trend towards a downward trend in contamination
levels, including statistically significant decreases in DDE, b-HCH,
PCB, and oxychlordane. The mean concentrations (mg/g
ww unless otherwise noted) found were: E. Finnmark: SPCB = 0.48, SDDT
= 0.29, DDE = 0.25, HCB = 0.09, Schlordane 0.04, b-HCH
= 2.27 ng/g, g-HCH = 0.85 ng/g.
Kola Peninsula: SPCB = 0.98, SDDT
= 0.09, DDE = 0.31, HCB = 0.10, Schlordane
= 0.04, b-HCH
= 2.88 ng/g, g-HCH
= 0.23 ng/g. As in the 1983 study there was no consistent changes by
region. |
|
15.
|
Egg
samples (n = 13) from common murres residing at the Farallon Islands and
Ano Nuevo Island were collected in May, June, and July 1993 and analyzed
for organochlorine contaminants (Jarman et al., 1996). The eggs
contained the following mean concentrations in ng/g dw:
SDDT
= 8200, SHCH
= 78, Schlordane
= 85, HCB
= 41, SPCB
= 5900. Levels of DDE
in murres have decreased nearly 15-fold since 1971, from 115,000 to
8200, while PCB
concentrations have decreased nearly 20 times, from 110,000 to 5900.
PCBs measured in the common murres contain
a greater proportion of the higher chlorinated cogeners (hexa-, hepta-,
octa-). |
|
16. |
Common
murre eggs (n = 15) collected at South East Farallon Island (SEFI) and
at Ano Nuevo Island in the spring of 1993 were analyzed for
organochlorine contaminants (Pyle et al., 1999).
Mean concentrations in ng/g ww that were found: DDE
= 2200, dieldrin = 6.4, oxychlordane
= 7.7, SHCB
= 11, heptachlor epoxide =
3.5, and SPCB
= 1600. |
|
II. |
Cholinesterase-Inhibiting
Pesticides |
|
|
No
direct exposure data available |
|
III. |
Trace
Elements, Metals, and Metalloids |
|
A.
|
Concentrations
in Adults and Juveniles |
|
1.
|
Secondary
feathers from 11 common murres collected during 1906 to 1925 in the
Baltic region were examined for Hg
and found to have a mean concentration of 2.7 mg/g
(Jensen et al., 1972). These results were compared with analysis taken
from 10 adult Baltic common murres collected in 1969, which showed a
significant increase to 5.4 mg/g.
|
|
2.
|
Fifth
primary feathers from the left wing of common murres collected from 1969
to 1979 in the Baltic and Faroe Islands were analyzed for Hg
content (Appelquist et al., 1985).
The following concentrations (in ng/g) were recorded for the
years indicated: North Baltic: 1969: 4326, 1973: 3274, 1975: 4008, 1976:
3737; South Baltic: 1973: 2585, 1975: 3227, 1976: 3039, 1977: 2571,
1979: 3176; Faroe Islands: 1973 = 1214. |
|
3.
|
Livers
from common murres that were among a massive die-off (counted at an
average of 91 dead murres per mile of beach) in April 1970 at the
Alaskan peninsula and Unimak Island were analyzed and found to have 2.77
mg/g
As
in some samples (Bailey and Davenport, 1971). |
|
4.
|
A
liver sample from an oiled common murre (in first year) found September
1970 at Ayrshire, UK was found to have a concentration of Hg
at 5.1 mg/g
dw (Dale et al., 1973). |
|
5.
|
Livers
from two common murres collected in July 1971 from the North Sea (57 to
58 degrees north lat) were examined for Hg and
found to have 5.3 mg/g
dw for the adult and 0.7 mg/g
for the juvenile (Dale et al., 1973). |
|
6.
|
Feather
samples (4 or 5 large) taken from 17 common murres were analyzed for
organic vs. inorganic Hg
concentrations (Thompson and Furness, 1989).
The following mean concentrations (mg/g
ww) were recorded: Total Hg =
1.5, Organic Hg
= 1.7. The results indicate that virtually all Hg
present in the feathers was in the organic form.
|
|
7.
|
Primary
feathers from common murres (n = 2) collected before 1984 in the North
Baltic were analyzed and found to have mean Hg
concentrations (ng/g) of 2768 and 3372 (Appelquist et al., 1984).
|
|
8.
|
Pectoral
muscle, liver, and kidney samples taken from 6 adult common murres
collected 26 – 28 July, 1986 from the North Pacific Ocean near the
Northern Alaska mainland were analyzed for metals (Honda et al., 1990). The following mean concentrations (mg/g
ww) were found: MUSCLE: Fe
= 113, Mn = 0.53, Zn =
11, Cu = 5.27, Cd
= 0.03, Hg = 0.06; LIVER: Fe
= 282, Mn = 2.75, Zn
= 22.8, Cu = 5.40, Cd =
0.35, Hg = 0.22; KIDNEY: Fe
= 188, Mn = 1.31, Zn =
20.2, Cu = 3.79, Cd
= 2.27, Hg = 0.18. |
|
9.
|
Body
feathers (4-10 each) taken during the period of 1986 to 1991 from common
murres residing in Iceland, Scotland, and Norway were analyzed for total
Hg and found to have the
following concentrations (mg/g ww):
Iceland: 1.5, n = 45; Firth of Forth, Scotland: 3.0, n = 44; Foula,
Scotland: 1.1, n = 56; Northeast Norway: 1.2, n = 45 (Thompson et al.,
1992). |
|
10.
|
Liver,
kidney, feathers, and muscle tissues taken from both juvenile and adult
common murres collected in Loch Broom, Scotland on three separate
collection occasions (April, June, and November) in 1988 were analyzed
for trace metals (Stewart et al., 1994). Males had significantly higher concentrations
of Hg in feathers than
females, whereas females had higher concentrations
of Cu in kidneys than
males. Mercury and Cd concentrations were significantly higher in adult liver
and kidney compared to juveniles, but not in feather or muscle.
Copper was
significantly higher in adult liver than in juveniles. Mercury
concentrations in internal tissues showed a general decline from April
through November, whereas Cd
concentrations increased significantly April and June, then decreased to
almost half the June level by November.
Mercury levels in the muscle of the juvenile birds drops by
almost half between April and June and is even lower by November.
Adults had the following concentrations (mg/g
dw) for April, June, November respectively in kidneys: Cd = 9.00, 11.72, 6.14; Zn
= 72.22, 74.13, 72.31; Cu
= 13.82, 13.69, 13.00; Hg =
3.93, 2.54, 0.84. Adults
had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively
in liver: Cd = 1.56, 2.49, 1.66; Zn
= 58.42, 68.89, 69.7; Cu = 15.02, 16.09, 15.48; Hg
= 3.66, 2.52, 0.87. Adults had the following concentrations
for April, June, November respectively in muscle tissue:
Zn = 25.17, 25.98,
20.89; Cu
= 11.52, 13.96, 10.68; Hg =
1.76, 0.84, 0.47. Adult feathers had the following Hg
concentrations: 2.15, 2.09, 1.71.
Juveniles had the following concentrations for April, June,
November respectively in kidneys: Cd
= 4.05, 10.50, 1.56; Zn =
67.73, 74.03, 59.30; Cu =
13.96, 15.24, 12.26; Hg =
3.43, 1.91, 1.02. Juveniles
had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively
in liver: Cd = 1.35, 1.98, 1.09; Zn
= 58.56, 67.77, 60.78; Cu =
12.92, 15.62, 13.34; Hg =
2.40, 1.57, 1.06. Juveniles
had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively
in muscle tissue: Zn =
23.29, 24.11, 22.54; Cu =
12.03, 13.50, 10.21; Hg =
1.27, 0.65, 0.52. Juvenile
feathers had the following Hg concentrations:
1.26, 2.68, 0.87. |
|
11.
|
During
6 successive winters, from 1989-90 to 1994-95, 727 common murres (either
dead or having died after rehab attempt) were recovered from coastal
Belgium (Debacker et al., 1997). Half of the murres showed signs of
external or internal oiling and
the livers and kidneys from 339 murres were tested for the effect of oiling
on trace metals. The
following mean concentrations
in mg/g
dw were reported (in the order of 1. Non-oiled
murres, 2. Externally and
internally oiled murres,
and 3. Only externally oiled
murres): liver: Cu
= 680, 715, 700; Zn = 52,
50, 55; Fe = 2318, 2189,
2362; Cd = 2.1, 2.0, 2.1, Total
Hg = 5.3, 6.9, 5.5; organic
Hg = 4.1, 4.3, 3.9; inorganic
Hg = 0.9, 0.8, 0.7; kidney: Cu
= 28, 25, 27; Zn
= 176, 155, 167; Fe = 529,
689, 650; Cd = 6.3, 3.8,
6.8; total Hg = 4.0, 7.2,
3.5; organic Hg = 3.0, 5.9,
3.0; inorganic Hg = 0.8,
0.9, 0.7; muscle: Cu = 19,
16, 18; Zn = 63, 54, 55; Fe
= 663, 586, 648; Cd = not
recorded; total Hg = 1.8,
2.3, 1.5; organic Hg = 1.4,
1.5, 1.3; inorganic Hg =
0.2, 0.5, 0.2. |
|
12.
|
A
liver (3 sample portions) from a single common murre found dead,
entangled in a fishing net in Gdansk Bay, Poland (Southern Baltic Sea)
in winter 1989 was analyzed and found to have 500 ng/g ww mean total
butyltin (Kannan and Falandysz, 1997). |
|
13.
|
Soft
tissues and body feathers of 10 common murres taken at Hornoya, Norway
in the summers of 1992 and 1993 were analyzed for total Hg,
Se, Cd, Zn, and Cu
(Wenzel and Gabrielsen, 1995). The mean concentrations found in feathers
(in mg/g
ww) were: Hg
= 0.88, Se =
2.59, Cu
= 18.35, Cd
= 0.026, Zn
= 66.13. Mean concentrations in soft tissues (in mg/g
dw) were: Liver: Hg
= 1.88, Se =
17.6, Cu
= 20, Cd
= 3.08, Zn
= 86.7; Kidney: Hg = 1.46, Se
= 43.74, Cu
= 14.44, Cd
= 24.06, Zn
= 114; Muscle: Hg
= 0.42, Se =
none, Cu
= 19.22, Cd
= 0.18, Zn
= 49.28; Gonads: Hg
= 1.17, Se =
21.93, Cu
= 6.01, Cd
= 1.125, Zn
= 122.6; Lung: Hg
= 1.25, Se =
none, Cu
= 2.57, Cd
= 0.29, Zn
= 44.57. |
|
14.
|
Livers,
muscles, and kidneys of beached common murres collected during winter
(Nov/Dec, Jan, and Feb) and spring (Mar) from 1990 to 1995 along the
Belgian coast were analyzed for Hg contamination
(Joiris et al., 1997). Mercury
occurred in the organic form MeHg as
80 to 85% of the SHg
load. SHg concentrations (in mg/g
dry weight) varied as follows: Liver-winter = 3.56, 5.02, 5.94;
Liver-spring = 8.58; Muscle-winter = 1.48, 1.73, 2.33; Muscle-spring =
3.34; Kidney-winter = 2.92, 4.21, 3.66; Kidney-spring = 7.88. Methyl
mercury concentrations were as follows: Liver-winter = 2.97,
3.94, 4.33; Liver-spring = 7.74; Muscle-winter = 1.20, 1.38, 1.72;
Muscle-spring = 2.78; Kidney-winter = 1.60, 3.65, 2.84; Kidney-spring =
6.10. |
|
15.
|
Liver,
breast feathers, kidney, breast muscle and lung samples taken from dead
and dying oiled common
murres collected along the northern coast of Brittany (n = 60) and the
German Bight (n = 31) in the winter of 1992 – 1993 were analyzed for
trace elements (Wenzel and Adelung, 1996). Brittany murres had
significantly lower Hg concentrations (in mg/g
dry weight) than German Bight murres in liver (5.011 vs 8.338), kidney
(4.46 vs 6.66), and breast-muscle (1.871 vs 2.411), but no difference in
feathers (2.337 vs 1.79). For the same age group Cd
concentrations
were significantly different for Brittany versus German Bight murres in
kidneys (10.20 vs 5.80), but no differences noted for other tissues.
Selenium concentrations
were significantly different in feathers (1.70 Brittany vs 1.24 German
Bight) but not in kidneys (21.55 Brittany vs 23.54 German Bight). Murres
from the German Bight had significantly higher kidney Cu
concentrations
than Brittany murres (31.25 vs 21.62), but no regional differences were
noted in liver (53.6 Brittany vs 63.8 German Bight) or in feather values
(25.6 Brittany vs 24.1 German Bight) when considering murres of the same
nutritional quotient. Zinc concentrations
were significantly higher in kidneys (193 vs 156) and in lung tissue (74
vs 52) of murres from the German Bight, whereas other tissues revealed
no significant differences in concentrations.
|
|
16.
|
Kidney and liver samples from dead and moribund common murres, which were part of a 3500 murre die-off in the northern Gulf of Alaska, were collected during the first 6 months of 1993 and analyzed for trace elements (Piatt and Van Pelt, 1997). The following mean concentrations (mg/g dry weight / mg/g wet weight) were recorded: Cd kidney = 13.7 / 2.85; Cd liver = 4.46 / 1.12; Hg kidney = 1.08 / 0.13; Hg liver = 1.80 / 0.23; Se kidney = 20.1 / 4.54; Se liver = 12.5 / 3.4; Cu kidney = 14.4 / 2.98; Cu liver = 30.8 / 8.18; Fe |
